Internatoinal business mangement 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Internatoinal business mangement 3 - Assignment Example Hence, a prudent thing to do is to expand the market internationally in the effort to increase profitability and survival at the same time (Hill, 2012). Expanding internationally has many benefits, which increase chances of survival. An organization is able to boost its reputation and boost the staff morale. In addition, the existing products are introduced to new markets, especially if they have become less popular in the domestic markets. The firm’s overreliance on the domestic markets reduces and the risks, though hard to do away with can be spread. The great sales volume as well translate into higher profits However, in establishing a business internationally, it requires coordinated effort as well as sustained management effort. This practically implies management talent. This is easily attained by just setting up an economic model. Such a model is meant for solving problems as it offers a structured solution to the dilemma under review. Global industries are those industries whose firms must compete in all world markets. These industries have the characteristic of gaining economies of scale across markets. These companies pursue a global strategy whereby they compete in all markets and they provide the same product for each market. They identify customer needs and wants in the international borders. Global industries are also characterized by high development and recurrent costs, thus requiring more than one market to recover the costs. The following firms are categorized in the global firms’ category as they have those features. Movie making, bulk chemicals, pharmaceuticals, branded food products, television manufacturing, personal computers and airline travel (Hill, 2012). Multidomestic industries on the other hand, are those industries with a strategy of producing products and services, which are commonly tailored to individual countries. Innovation comes locally and managers decentralize decision-making as well as encourage local sourcing. They

Impact of Mobile Communications on Construction Industry

Impact of Mobile Communications on  Construction Industry 1. INTRODUCTION The total annual turnover of the building and construction industry in most economies around the world amounts to billions of dollars per annum, contributing approximately 10 per cent of GDP (Olomolaiye et al, 1998, quoted in Farin et al 2001). Although the Construction sector is pivotal in any economy as noted above, it is however an industry which is plagued by inefficiency which is caused by the lack of communication within organisations involved in the delivery of a project solution. According to Bowden and Thorpe (2002), 65% of contractor rework is attributed to insufficient, inappropriate and conflicting information on construction sites. The problem of communication on most construction sites are exacerbated because many operatives working in the field capture data manually (or maybe use a standalone handheld device) which is then physically transported to office. The information may then have to be manually keyed into the office computer system. This process is time consuming and requires extra workforce to re-enter data into the office computer. The introduction of Internet and communication technologies has seen the urgency in the expectations of people within the industry to have access to the latest information produced at any point in the project life. These expectations reflect the increasingly competitive pressure within the construction sector to deliver quicker and cheaper solutions. It also reflects the increased electronic awareness that internet use has cultured, realising a one-stop information on demand medium. The invention of handheld computing device enabled with a suitable wireless capability has proved a valuable innovation which reduces travel costs, increase operative efficiency, and speed data transfer. Data can easily be keyed on site and communicated wirelessly to the office computer. This information can further be uploaded on from the computer to the internet or extranet enabling faster and quicker process which reduces times. The use of project extranet solutions (a single project database shared by all project members: Client; Designer; Contractors; Suppliers) and document management systems is now common on large projects. Mobile communication technologies therefore can strategically be implemented to reduce cost and increase returns on investment. There are many applications of mobile communications in the construction industry. This report however focuses on the impact of mobile communication technologies in the construction industry. 2. Mobile Communication Mobile communication is a technology that eases communication by linking individuals or groups who are not physically present at the same location via wireless means. There are various software and hardware been used such as PDA, mobile phones, CAD application, data capture, project management etc. The mobile phone is still the king of mobile communication, and it has evolved to include smart features such as picture messaging, diary management, e-mail and web browsing. Likewise, many handheld computers (Personal Digital Assistants) are being produced with phone capabilities. For many individuals however, affordable smart phones have become feature rich enough to lure them away from their handheld computer, mainly because smart phones are more compact (Kinns and Babtie, 2005). As smart phones win over the personal computing device market, handheld computers are being developed more for the business computing market. Users in this market are more willing to sacrifice device size for increased computing power, and so devices such as the Tablet PC and Ultra Personal Computer (uPC) are being developed. Unlike most personal use, business use of mobile communication is concerned with the transfer of all forms of electronic data. Equally important is the way in which data and information is captured, and then managed to ensure it is readily available to other people/ devices when and where required. Improved cost effective mobile computing power will further reduce the office/ field divide. The uptake of integrated mobile communication computing devices and services has been significant. This growth in use will continue as smart phone devices gain more features, and handheld computers gain increased computing power. This is the belief of many leading players within the construction and telecom industries. Companies need to plan for this wireless future, and exploit the expected growth in their business strategies. 3. BENEFITS OF MOBILE TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION With the introduction of laptops into the work environment as a substitute for personal computers, the potential of the mobile worker became evident(Bowden et al, 2005). 3.1. Reduction in construction time and capital cost of construction According to (Bowden et al., 2005) mobile technologies can help minimise time and cut capital cost in the construction industry. Generic benefits of the provision of mobile technologies to point of activity workers include: doing away with retyping/redrafting, minimizing travel time in order to retrieve information and cut travel time to view point of actions or activities. Further explanation of cost savings and time are touched on in each of the developments assisted by mobile technologies below. 3.2. Reduction in operation and maintenance costs Mobile technology can help reduce maintenance cost and operation by improving upon the efficiency of workers and as well gather and provide information throughout the life cycle of a building or structure. The following construction industries (Network Rails London, North East and East Anglia Region) are using a PDA, GPS and GIS system to perform earthworks checks; look at the integrity of their embankments and cuttings. Network Rail currently obtains data from the inspections team on a week to week basis instead of waiting till the end of a 4-month inspection. This allows Network Rail to proactively organise their workload systematically. Getting Data using GIS can easily be grouped by condition enabling the identification of all ‘poor’ earthworks, including their location (automatically recorded by the GPS). A maintenance team can then be instructed to rectify groups of faults in a single pass. Within 1 year Network Rail achieved benefits for the solution(Bowden, 2004) . GPRS connected to PDA has been implemented by Rosser and Russell for obtaining new developments in terms of information from their maintenance engineers and delivering work orders. This has caused a significant change in administration required to accomplish their maintenance operation (Gooding, 2004). According to (Gooding and Bowden, 2004) GPS trackers are been utilised by Biwater for the implementation of fleet management system. This has given them the opportunity to able to analyse and track the actual position of their maintenance crews. Time has reduced drastically since the nearest crew to an incident could be spot on and instructed. The improved planning and implementation has considerably reduced maintenance cost, mileage, and also the fuel costs of the fleet. 3.3. Reduction in defects There have been several changes in national initiative that challenge the construction industry to target zero defects in handover. An example, even though Egan(Egan, 1998)came up with target for United Kingdom construction industry as a 20% annual reduction in the number of defects on handover, Egan proposed that there is considerably number of evidence which suggests that within 5 years the aim of zero defects could be achieved across the construction industry. Egan again touched on how some clients in the United States and the United Kingdom have already attained zero defects on handover. Taylor Woodrow and Mace piloted digital pen and paper solution and PDA solution respectively in their project. Both results gave them the knack to gather data electronically at source in a standardized format, and later were stored in a central database. The following trends could be searched on the database; reoccurring fault, re-offending subcontractors and setbacks in correcting errors. The various trends could be outline proactively. An additional benefit of having a central system for defect management is that the costs of rectifying snags can begin to be understood and hence a more proactive approach to managing quality throughout the construction process should be adopted to avoid these costs(Sommerville et al, 2004). According to (Newton, 1998) a research conducted in Australia depicted that 65% of contractor-rework is attributed to inadequate, unsuitable or contradictory information. Tablet PC system linked to a central database via a wireless LAN was developed by 3.4. Reduction in accidents For workers to report near misses, Mobile technologies could provide a mechanism that would increase the number of near misses reported in the construction industry. Those areas which need improvement in terms of electronic data could be analysed and highlighted. According to (Kiser and Fosbroke, 1994) the most common fatal injury is falling from height. OSHA Fall-Safe programme in the USA came up with a tablet PC audit tool(Becker et al, 2001). The work concluded that contractor control of fall hazards were improved when the conduct of an audit and the reports were generated. Next to fall from height are workers being struck by a moving vehicle which accounted for 10 fatalities in the UK in 2003/2004. In the Oil and Gas industry work is been carried out on the application of virtual exclusion zones for oil platform cranes. Cameras mounted on a crane boom can compute the position of personnel in an area hence could provide audible alert for the crane driver and personnel who are in d anger. Although, some vehicles give audible alerts this caution is not directed specifically to the person in danger and can be overlooked and identified as surrounding noise. This virtual exclusion or information zone could be utilized in the construction industry providing warning around machinery such as piling rigs or cranes and to provide information when entering areas with specific safety requirements. A step further along the line towards improving health and safety on-site is the possibility of automated construction, eliminating the need for personnel to be in dangerous areas. An example application is presented by 3.5. Reduction in waste Construction and demolition (CD) debris constitutes the waste generated during construction, renovation, and demolition projects. CD waste commonly includes building materials and products such as concrete, asphalt, wood, glass, brick, metal, gypsum wallboard, roofing, insulation, doors, windows and frames, flooring, and furniture. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that approximately 136 million tons of building-related CD debris were generated in 1996 — the majority from demolition (48%) and renovation (44%). New construction generated only 8% of building-related CD debris(Fishbein, 1998). The first step in understanding and reducing wastage on-site is to know what materials and equipment have been delivered. Several construction suppliers are currently considering or piloting Mobile IT solutions to facilitate their goods delivery process, providing electronic goods received notes (GRNs) and proof of delivery. A commonly held view is that the weakest point of the supply chain in the construction industry is the site; paper gets delivered and then lost. It may not get filed properly and the people on-site have no real awareness of how all the documents in the supply chain are linked. Lost GRNs are a huge problem for both the contractor and the supplier. One supplier stated that out of 4.5 million tickets issued each year contractors asked them to replace 300,000 GRNs. A contractor stated that on a  £45M project  £133,000 of invoices was being queried on any one day; Chen et al, 2002). The benefits achieved in relation to waste reduction include: faster location of materials/equipment; certainty that only the correct materials are used, reducing costs associated with damaged items; reduction in lost or stolen items; easier maintenance of a materials tracking database. CPIC (Centre for Performance Improvement in Construction) has developed a toolkit for measuring performance on-site; CALIBRE 2000. Wastage in time, materials and energy are collected by construction â€Å"observers† using a PDA device, which is then synchronised with a central database. The PDA enables information to be collected in real-time and it is then available for analysis by the site team the next day. (Chen et al, 2002).According to (Chen et al, 2002)suggest the use of bar-codes to facilitate a crew-based incentive reward programme (IRP). The workers are rewarded according to the amounts and values of materials they saved from their operations. This resulted in a 10% saving of material wastage. In both of these examples the drawback is that collection of the data still requires manual intervention. (Li et al, 2005). This reduces the possibility of damage to materials from ingress of weather and movement of people, plant and equipment within temporary storage facilities. As stated above, the majority of CD waste is generated during demolition and renovation. RFID tagging provides the capability of attaching information permanently to building components, which in turn offers the opportunity to provide future owners with information about the make-up of each component. Items can then be easily identified for recycling or reuse; even those items that cannot currently be recycled may be recyclable in the future. This would eliminate some of the prohibitive costs associated with identifying and sorting materials, making recycling a more viable option. 3.6. Increase in productivity Productivity is defined as the ratio of the amount of work produced to the resources used in its production. Productivity is increased if it takes fewer resources to do the same amount of work, or the same number of resources can achieve more. The drive for improved productivity in the construction industry has come with the recognition that productivity is inextricably linked to international competitiveness(Teicholz, 2004). Several of the national construction change initiatives promote the use of information technology as a tool to increase productivity, through automating tasks and enhancing collaboration. Task automation provides the following productivity enhancements: delivery of required information e.g. method statements; production of reports e.g. daily progress reports; alerts e.g. notification of safety hazard; data collation, reduces number of administration staff required. One area where significant losses in productivity occur is downtime on-site due to unforeseen problems. The opportunity for mobile technologies to provide immediate access, from the point of activity, to the personnel which may be able to resolve the problem has been an ongoing subject of research(Ballard and Howell, 1994). The Last Planner system has been set up to facilitate this method of planning and its toolset includes: collaborative programming; look-ahead meeting; weekly work plan meeting. The premise is that better planning improves productivity by reducing delays, getting the work done in the best constructability sequence, matching manpower to available work, and coordinating multiple interdependent activities 3.7. Increase in predictability The construction industry is noted for its delays in project delivery and over budget(Bourn, 2001). This is engineered by the following reasons methods of procurement, communication issues and culture. This section of the industry could be transformed by using mobile technology to provide precise real-time progress and cost information as the project progresses. In the above sections it can be observed that communication enhancement from one phase to the other became possible and in some situations have been achieved by most of the construction industries. The following Mobile applications are already in use progress reporting, timesheet, materials management and plant utilisation. This should now pave a way for most construction industries to compare and contrast planned programmes or budget and use this information in future projects. 4. CURRENT USE OF MOBILE TECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION. 4.1 Software and Hardware Innovations in Mobile Communications 4.1.1 Software Mobile CAD applications: Mobile devices equipped with CAD applications used by Construction personnel can mark-up, view, create and edit 2D/3D AutoCAD compatible designs at any place at anytime on construction site. CAD application may contact engineers, drafters and designers etc. who needs supports of designs and drawings in the construction site. Majority of mobile CAD applications are compatible with well-known mobile devices that run Windows mobile and Windows CE operating systems (COMIT, 2003). In order to communicate drawing files with desktop PCs, mobile CAD applications can connect and swap data with PCs by using ActiveSync for Windows OS or HotSync for Palm OS. The following are some of the CAD applications been used PocketCAD, PowerCAD and ZipCAD. Data capture applications: Bar code scanning, wireless sensors network and data capture are the three various types of data capture application used on sites. One of the mobile data capture system known as SHERPA enable users to collect real time piling work data by using mobile computers through a wireless local area network (WLAN) (Ward et al., 2003). Mobile construction chain supply(M-ConSCM) also named as bar- code enabled PDA, has been developed to create convenience and improve information flow in the construction supply chain environment through the integration of bar code scanner and PDA combined (Tserng and Dzeng, 2005). A new innovation has come into play i.e. Wireless sensor network that consists of various devices capable of a cooperative sensing task and is compared with the concept of ubiquitous computing. A mass concrete curing management system (CMS) has been developed to investigate the possibility of applying wireless sensor network to on-site data collection proces ses (Lee and Kang, 2006). This system can allow the collection, transfer, and delivery of the recorded curing temperature data automatically in real time in a wireless sensor network environment. Project management applications: Applications in the project administration area provide users with the capabilities of project and programme management such as construction activity review, activity monitoring and updating, progress management, risk management, Microsoft Project file view and update, and material and equipment management, through their on-hand mobile computers. Available commercial applications include Primavera Mobile Management, CYtools, and OnSite FDM. 4.1.2 Hardware Palmtops / PDA – Personal Digital Assistance PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), sometimes known as a Palmtop, is a mobile computer that allows you to store, access, and organize information. More sophisticated PDAs can run word processing, spreadsheet and industry specific applications and also provide e-mail and internet process. Some models now offer the functionality of a mobile phone and a PDA in a single unit. These units use either a Palm or Microsoft Windows Pocket PC operating system. In general, the more functions offered on the device, the shorter the battery life. Currently, there are no rugged devices available in this category, since they could be seen as more akin to a non-rugged mobile phone. Many of these devices use an electronic pen (called a stylus) rather than a keyboard for input. This is associated with special operating systems that support handwriting recognition so that users can write on the screen or on a tablet instead of typing on a keyboard. Hand-held Computers A hand-held computer offers the main functionality of a laptop in a smaller package. They feature a full QWERTY style keyboard and a landscape display. Typically, they run on a Windows-based operating system, like a desktop PC. Because they have a keyboard, this type of device is probably best suited where it can be used on a stable base, for example in a pick-up truck. Although the Windows CE OS is more demanding on battery life and memory, many of the devices will compensate for this by providing more memory space and larger capacity batteries as standard. 4.2 Health and Safety One of the most hazardous industries to work in the is the construction industry; it is noted that 3.6 per 100,000 workers in the United Kingdom encounter fatal injury, associating with 70 people, depicts an unfavourably average of 0.81 in the industry(Mckerman, 2001). 4.2.1 Case Study (Health and Safety-Skanka) The civil engineering division of Skanska known as Skanska Tekra Oya in Finland is currently using SMS/WAP and MMM based system which propels them to collect data electronically by using the supervisor’s phone. It then passes problem notifications on to the subcontractors who then respond with via SMS when problem is resolved. Issues which took days to complete could be dealt with in few hours and since then accidents have decreased drastically with the use of the system. The gathered data are stored on a central database facilitating the classification of trends to be automated. Continual non application can be emphasized and a more positive approach of doing away with their reoccurrence can be established, such as training preventative measures put in place e.g. warning signs placed at dangerous areas and barriers around overhead electricity cables. In addition, subcontractors who are time and again causing safety issues and are reluctant in putting an end to them can be dea lt with properly. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health came up with a mobile system that replicates MVR safety method for civil engineers and is used in most construction industry in Finland. Coming up with a single tool and comparing across construction sites will smooth the progress of improvement hence reduce. The â€Å"Accident Triangle†(Heinrich et al, 1980)illustrates that fatal injuries are just the tip of the iceberg (Fig 1). Theory states that â€Å"if you reduce the number of near misses, this in turn will reduce the number of fatalities†. The records show near misses is performing badly. The reason could be the number of times they occur and the amount of paperwork that has to be completed and recorded. 5. Emerging Trends and innovation The core reason of mobile in the built environment is its mobility. Mobile phones (speech and text messages), cameras in cell phones, GPRS are the commonly used within the construction industry. In terms of logistics, quality control and control of equipment, RFID reader is applied. Additional use of RFID is the access right control, emerging in janitorial services; access rights controls and mobile access managements with very short-range wireless point-to-point interconnection technology. This technology is likely to become common in mobile phones, and in fact such kinds of phones are been in use in the industry offering intuitive and user-friendly touched based communication. The interactions that exit between the two devices are reasonable in terms of price and also low immunity to eavesdropping. According to (Tolman et al., 2006b) the new messaging and communication systems been used gives current method and possibilities to communicate and manage with embedded sensors networks in a buildings with general terminal equipments through local or global information networks. During the past decade the port of services has been rated as one of the most powerful trends in information technology. Services offered by web can be thought as environment where services are delivered in a formal way and this formal are interpreted by client side browsers. With the nature of all browsers been able to use all services it is of no importance to install locally specific software to use a specific service. Web paradigm is gradually taking place in mobile devices but there have been several impediments that slow down the trend. In technology mobile browsers are not in the same level as compared with that of desktop browsers and top of that since the web has been design with more resources, the of resources in mobile devices are limited hence makes it a problem. That indicates that mobile devices that use web pages should be designed for them. Web paradigm is a natural fit to mobile devices as distributing software to mobile devices is cumbersome and leads to difficult maintenance problems. 6. Challenges of mobile Technology in the construction industry Though the above benefits of mobile technology shows a headway for most construction industry in using mobile technology there are several challenges faced by the industry that needs to be addressed. 6.1. Hardware for Mobile Technology Handheld computers, lightweight and compact laptops have come into extensive use over the past few years; other devices like wearable computers are also making great impact as well. Where improvement has been sluggish the integration ofmobilehardware seams to bridge a user’s desktop, activities whilemobile, and the Internet. There are four basic issues that complicate implementation and design (Satyanarayanan, 1996). In relation to static element mobile elements are resource-poor in terms of weight, size and power. Due to the transmission of data through open space mobile communication are vulnerable to security violation. In addition, wireless connectivity is very unpredictable in reliability and performance. Finally,mobile elements must rely on limited energy sources. It is important to note that these issues are not artifacts of current technology but are intrinsic to mobility. Collectively, they complicate the design ofmobile technologysystems. As a result, even though imp ortant research progress has been conducted, the implementation and design of mobile computing systems still remain a problem. 6.2. Location-Sensing One of the most widely used location-sensing today is the Global Positioning System (GPS). Using time-of-flight information derived from radio signals broadcast by a group of satellites in earth orbit. GPS makes it possible for a relatively cheap receiver (on the order of $100 today) to deduct latitude, longitude, and altitude to an accuracy of a few meters (Hightower and Borriello, 2001). The U.S. Department of Defence maintained the expensive satellite infrastructure, but with the investment been made many civilian benefits from it. Without a doubt, the past few years there has been a real sudden increase of GPS-based services for the consumer market. Although GPS is certainly important its location mechanism is not universally applicable. It cannot function indoors, particularly in places where there are steel-framed buildings and for many applications its resolution of a few meters is not adequate. GPS requires coordinates relative to specific objects whereas some applications (e .g., guidance systems for robotic equipment) use an absolute coordinate system. Further, the specific mechanism required for GPS impose cost, energy use requirements and weight that are difficult formobilehardware. Consequently, the following mechanism for tracking location (e.g., active badges, e911, and Cricket) considerably varies in their capabilities and infrastructure requirement. System costs vary as well, reflecting different trade-offs among device portability, device expense, and infrastructure needs. For applications involvingmobileobjects, orientation sensing (determining the direction an object faces) is also important, and this continues to be an active area of research. 6.3. Wireless Communications There has been a tremendous growth in the deployment of wireless communication technologies in the past decade. Although there has been considerable increase in data communication technologies, the most recognised one is voice communication (cell phones) which has been the primary driver. With many vendors offering hardware that supports the IEEE 802.11, wireless LAN technologies is now widely embraced in the construction industry (Williams, 2000). Although Bluetooth offers no bandwidth advantage as compared with 802.11, its standard has been backed by a number of hardware and software vendors and it is cheap to produce and frugal in power demand (Haartsen, 2000). The lowest-cost wireless technology in the market is the Infrared wireless communication this is due to the fact that it is primarily used in TV remote controls. IrDA supports handheld computers, laptops and other peripherals devices like printer been used today. Infrared wireless communication must be by line of sight, wit h range limited to a few feet. It is also affected adversely by high levels of ambient light, such as prevail outdoors during daylight hours. Greenhalgh claim that WI-FI network do perform well in open space when on construction site, due to the fact that when projects starts, getting wireless signals is easy but at a stage when they are boxed there seems to be interferences (COMIT, 2003). It is difficult to foresee what new wireless technologies will emerge in the future. Power consumption clearly will be an important factor for untethered devices, such asmobile computers, PDAs, and Smart Dust. In addition, it is clear that advances will be constrained by trade-offs among four factors: frequency, bandwidth, range, and density of wired infrastructure. Devices operating at a higher frequency could have greater bandwidth but would require major advances in high-frequency very-large-scale integration (VLSI) design. Advances also will be constrained by policy decisions on frequency usage (spectrum allocation) by the Federal Communications Commission. Range is fundamentally related to transmission power, but generating high pow er at high frequency always has been a difficult technical challenge. This is not a short-term annoyance but a core, long-term requirement of successful system architectures 6.4. Privacy and Trust Mobile computing and distributed system have been experiencing problems when it comes to privacy and this is greatly complicated by pervasive computing. Smart spaces, surrogates imonitor and location tracking are mechanisms used on a continuous basis. As a users keep on depending on this pervasive computing systems, they get more knowledge about the behaviour pattern, habits and the movement. Utilising this information becomes vital to successful proactivity and self-tuning. In addition, unless information used is strictly controlled, they will be unsafe from targeted spam to blackmail. Indeed, the constant loss of confidentiality will discourage users from using computing system. Greater dependence on mobile communications on site means that users should have confidence in that infrastructure to a considerable extent. On the other hand, the infrastructure has to be confident enough to authorise and identify users credential before responding to request. It is very challenging to cre ate this mutual trust in a manner that is minimally intrusive and thus preserves invisibility. Privacy and trust are likely to be enduring problems in Mobile communication technology in the construction industry. 7. Conclusion The current usage of mobile communication in the construction industry brings many change improvements wished for within the industry by enabling point of activity workers to participate in the electronic flow of information using mobile technologies. Although this is not the only solution to the problems to be addressed, it does offer the potential of significant impact in reducing construction time and cost, defects, accidents, waste

Puritan Hypocrisy Exposed in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter E

Puritan Hypocrisy Exposed in The Scarlet Letter   Ã‚   Throughout The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne repeatedly portrays the Puritanical views of sin and evil.   The Puritans are constantly displayed as believing that evil comes from an unyielding bond being formed between love and hate.   For such reasons they looked towards Hester's commitment of adultery as an action of pure, condemned evil.   However, through the use of light and dark imagery, Hawthorne displays who truly holds evil in their hearts.   The one who is the embodiment of evil creates hypocrisy of Puritanical views towards sin and evil.   Hawthorne displays that those who expose sin to the public and the daylight are the most pure and those who conceal their sin under a dark shadow are destined to be defeated.   Through his use of light and dark imagery and the contrast of his beliefs versus the beliefs of the Puritans, Hawthorne exposes the hypocritical beliefs of the Puritans by portraying Dimmesdale as destined for demise for concealing his sin, and ironically Hester the most pure for admitting her sin.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The first description of Dimmesdale that Hawthorne presents to the reader is of Dimmesdale hiding his sin.   One Puritan says, speaking of Hester's sin, "Reverend Master Dimmesdale, her godly pastor, takes it very grievously to heart that such a scandal have come upon his congregation" (38).   Immediately, Dimmesdale is shown to the readers as not only concealing his sin, but also being hypocritical in his condemnation of a sin that he himself has also committed.   On the very same page, Hawthorne speaks of the "dismal severity of the Puritanic code of law" (38).   From the beginning of The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne uses dismal, a dark and evil ... ... thing that frees one of evil and shame is revealing his sin.   Hawthorne foreshadows the death and demise of Dimmesdale from the beginning of the book by keeping him cast in a dark shadow with an aching heart.   Hester was continuously condemned for her sin, although it was revealed through the light constantly burning upon her chest.   This illustrates the hypocrisy of the Puritan beliefs towards sin, for it was he who concealed his sin that was destined to be defeated by his ignominy, and she who was explicitly condemned that prospers and grows and is able to live a full, didactic life.    Sources Hawthorne, Nathaniel.   The Scarlet Letter.   New York: Penguin Putnam Inc., 1980. Bradford, William.   "The Errand of the Early Puritans."   Class handout.   March 2002. Winthrop, John.   "Life in Puritan New England."   Class handout.   March 2002.

Media and Islam Essay

An area of popular research throughout the last two decades is the study of mainstream media and it’s depiction of individuals that follow the Islamic faith. It is evident that Muslims encounter countless stereotypes through the lens of Western media consumers. This essay will highlight events occurring after the September 11, 2001 World Trade Centre attacks and ultimately display the Islamophobia present within politics. It is through this research that I will outline the stereotypes prevalent whilst providing contemporary media examples. Overall, this essay will argue that Islamophobia is prevalent in contemporary Western media; however, combating this Islamophobia is also evidently visible. Furthermore, due to certain media structures such as corporate ownership dominance and cultural consensus, Islam is viewed as the antagonist of Western culture. Overall, this essay will focus on the two evident spectrums of media coverage of Muslims and their religion as a topic of disco urse. Through this essay I will aim to conclude that though extreme Islamophobia is prevalent in Western media, there is many media outlets that look to eliminate Islamophobia and Xenophobia altogether. The media coverage that will be analyzed will be highlighting Quebec’s political party; Parti Quebecois’ proposal for secular changes to the Quebec Charter and the recent Boston Marathon Bombing media coverage. I will begin this essay by defining the phrase â€Å"Islamophobia† and it’s significance within Western media coverage. Islamophobia is an ideology that radiates negative meanings to Muslims and Islam, thereby giving rise to negative attitudes and discriminatory practices against Muslims and Islam (ethnic). It is the fear of followers of the Islamic religion and negative views on the religion as a whole. Islamophobia leads to many negative depictions of Muslims. Moreover Islamophobia is described as the belief that Islam is inferior to the west (GoG ale). Also, it is studied as, â€Å" barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist; Islam is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism and engaged in a clash of civilizations† (GoGale). If one were to have the same views against another religion or ethnic group in the West, it would be considered racism. However, as stated by Gema Martin-Munoz, this is not the case with Islam. She claims â€Å"Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices against Muslims and the exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural or  normal† (GoGale). Islamophobia and the Hijab: It is one of the reasons that the hijab is a controversial issue in contemporary Western societies and media. The lack of knowledge of reasoning behind the decision of Muslim women to cover their heads leads individuals to assume that these specified women are oppressed as a result of clear sexism in the Muslim religion. Also, Islamophobia is also prevalent with regards to the hijab as many Western media outlets describe it as a symbol of terrorism (examples will be described shortly). Overall, Islamophobia in the West is the fear and negative depiction of Muslims and Islamophobia with regards to the hijab is to view one choosing to wear it as a representation of oppression and terrorism. I will begin this section by summarizing the events for the two aforementioned political events. First, the Boston Bombing occurred on April 15, 2013 at the Boston Marathon. Two brothers were considered the alleged criminals for building and planting two pressure cooker bombs that exploded near the finish line of the marathon. This caused the death of three people and wounded more than 260 (Boston Marathon Bombing Suspect Seeks Dismissal of Some Charges). Tamerlan Tsarnaev aged 26, and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev aged 20, were involved in a police chase that evidently resulted in the death of the older brother, Tamerlan, during a police shootout, while Dzhokhar was eventually caught hiding in the Boston town of Watertown (Boston Marathon Bombing Suspect Seeks Dismissal of Some Charges). Fox News stated, â€Å"Authorities say he and his older brother, Tamerlan, ethnic Chechens from Russia who emigrated to the United States as children, planned and carried out the attack to retaliate against the U.S for its involvement in Muslim countries† (Kelly). Authorities said Dzhokhar had scratched anti-American messages on the inside of the boat, including â€Å" The U.S Government is killing our innocent civilians† and â€Å"We Muslims are one body, you hurt one you hurt us all† after the death of his older brother (Kelly). Radical Islamic views were deemed the motive behind the attacked by the alleged criminals. Further, the younger Tsarnaev brother was caught a few days after the bombing and is now facing over 30 federal counts, including the use of weapons of mass destruction (Boston Marathon Bombing Suspect Seeks Dismissal of Some Charges). Power is a critical aspect of gaining an  audience for the media. Individuals and groups that possess power are deemed newsworthy. These organizations become the center of attention and information during political events and are the dominant hub of information that consumers are exposed to. This directly correlates to Fox News as it holds a large amount of power in regards to television. Specifically, in 2013 Fox News was the number one ranked news station for the twelfth consecutive year. As studied by TVNEWSER, â€Å"Fox News remained on top in 2013, capping off its 12th consecutive year as the most-watched cable news network among both total viewers and A25-54 viewers (Knox). This ranking is due to its news content being exposed to almost two million consumers daily (Knox). Ultimately, this creates a problem, as Fox News is an obvious right wing conservative news channel. It is to be noted that Fox News is commonly witnessed using the news channel to express the partisan beliefs of its owners and news team. The power Fox News holds has played an integral part in the framing of Muslims accompanying the Boston Marathon Bombing attacks. Framing is defined as the way in which we talk about an issue or event that puts it into a context, and it has important implications for public opinion and the alternatives available for addressing the issue (Ridout, 150). Following the bombings in Boston, framing was observed through Fox News and its’ media outlets. Specifically, on April 20th, 2013 (five days after the bombing) Fox News correspondents indirectly claimed Islam as the evident factor behind the motive of both of the main suspects, Tamerlan and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. The heading during this specified newscast was â€Å" The Mind of A Terrorist, Factors t hat May Lead to a Radical Path†. As the newscast prolonged correspondents were expressing radical frames to the brothers. Specifically, they continued to frame the plot and reason behind the alleged attack to directly correlate to the Islamic religion of the two brothers. As the panel discussed, one correspondent questioned the wife of the older brother, Tamerlan, and her involvement in the alleged plot. He stated, â€Å"I just wonder that if under questioning she can honestly say that she had no idea that her husband who spent a year away and prayed five times a day, that she had no indication that he was capable of this† (The Mind of a Terrorist). Stating this, the correspondent undeniably created a relation to terrorism and the Islamic act of praying five times a day. This correspondent framed the bombing to put terrorism in the same context as the  religion of Islam. Additionally, with the large consumer numbers of Fox News, this opinion had reached a number of pe ople providing them with a framed context on a political event. Fox News continued their coverage of the Boston Bombing whilst focusing on and stressing the Muslim religion of both the Tsarnaev brothers. At the same time, media outlets that disregarded their religion were ignored as importance of their Islamic roots grew rapidly. Overall, the power of Fox News in contemporary media enables the outlet as newsworthy, regardless of the content media and partisan biases present within the origins of the organization as a public outlet. Though the Boston Marathon Bombings were encircled around the fact that there were two male Muslim victims, the media found a way to deepen the Islamophobia already prevalent with attacks on the hijab. Specifically, the wife of Tamerlan, Katherine Russell was a convert who wore the hijab. This directly made her a terrorist in the eyes of Fox News and its’ correspondents. One example of this was witnessed by Ann Coulter, a Fox News correspondent and avid Conservative. When speaking about Katherine’s knowledge of her husbands alleged plans to bomb the Boston Marathon, she spoke about her extremely negatively. When her peers stated that Katherine must have had ideas that Tamerlan was having terrorist-like thoughts, Coulter stated, â€Å" I don’t care if she knew about this. She ought to be in prison for wearing a hijab† (Insider). This is a clear example of cultural consensus. As explained by Professor Katherine Bullock, the cultural elite in Western society deem the Western states as the hero, the Muslims as the villain and the citizens of the state as clear victims (Bullock). Also, it is important to note that with regards to Fox News, there is a lack of diversity in views. The news channel has correspondents that share similar views and as a result, the consumer receives and interprets one-sided media coverage. This is a clear problem with Western media outlets as the lack of diversity supports bias opinions. Overall, Fox News is a prime example of the stereotypes Muslim’s face in Western contemporary societies. The Parti Quebecois’ Quebec Charter Proposal: Differentiating greatly from that of the Western media views on the Boston Marathon Bombings, the media coverage of the proposed Charter changes by the Parti Quebecois was vastly different. The media coverage around the party’s  disapproval of overt and conspicuous religious symbols worn within the government was relatively negative. This evidently shows a different perspective showing that that combating of Islamophobia is prevalent in some Western media outlets. The change to the Quebec Charter was issued by the Parti Quebecois; a popular political party of Quebec. In early September of 2013, the Parti Quebecois held a press conference at the National Assembly in Quebec City (global). At this press conference, the Bernard Drainville, the Minister responsible for Democratic Institutions and Active Citizenship discussed how his party planned to shed light on religious accommodations and Quebec values (global). With the ultimate goal of religious neutrality of the state, he s tated, â€Å"these offer harmonious relations and social cohesion for a Quebec that is increasingly multiethnic and multireligious† (global). In other words, the Part Quebecois aimed to eliminate large religious symbols identifying a specific individual’s religious beliefs and values. It is to be noted that the main purpose of this mandate was to instill equality between both sexes along with religious neutrality within the government institutions of the province of Quebec. These five proposals are as listed: 1. Enshrine the questions of religious accommodation in the Quebec Charter of Rights and Freedoms by outlining the separation of religion and state, the religious neutrality of the state and the secular nature of its institutions, taking into account our common historical heritage; 2. Ensure that religious neutrality for government employees in the performance of their duties is established in law; 3. Outline what is considered conspicuous religious symbols for government employees during working hours (the proposal is subject to a right of withdrawal for a period of up to five years, renewable for certain sectors); 4. Ensure that the face is visible when giving or receiving government services 5. Establish a policy to implement the religious neutrality of the state and the management of religious accommodation for government agencies. Drainville concluded the press conference by stating, â€Å" Our proposals will be a source of greater understand ing, harmony and cohesion for all Quebec and all Quebecers, regardless of their religion or origin† (global). This was an evident political issue, as all public servants were no longer allowed to publicly associate themselves with the religions they previously followed. However, public servants were allowed to wear inconspicuous religion symbols such as  necklaces, rings or earrings with religious symbols, e.g the Star of David (global). The controversy arose as individuals realized that the Parti Quà ©bà ©cois would be preventing individuals from wearing things such as a headscarf, hijab, turban or kippa (global). This evidently would strip public servants of the fundamental rights stated under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Specifically, the Fundamental Rights section within the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states, â€Å"2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: (a) freedom of conscience and religion; (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication; (c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and (d) freedom of association.† (Charter) The proposed Quebec Charter changes would contradict those within the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This caused a clear backlash as individuals stated that the charter changes were unconstitutional and racist. The criticism witnessed through media ultimately showed the combating of the Islamophobia of the Parti Quebecois. Canadian newspapers and stations discussed this issue heavily and conclusively noted this new proposal as racist and xenophobic. CBC News reported differing opinions than that of the Part Quebecois evidently labeling the Charter proposal as racist. For example, CBC interviewed William Steinburg, the mayor of Montreal town Hamstead as he stated, â€Å" We will not comply with a racist and immoral law† and further continued stating, â€Å" In the event that the Quebec government passes this odious bill, which will force people to choose between their religious beliefs and their jobs, it will not be enforced in Hampstead† (CBC). Steinburg irrefutably is combating Islamophobia and Xenophobia altogether that was brought upon by the Parti Quebecois. Another CBC article reported on the hijab and its relation to the proposed secular Quebec Charter as they interviewed non-Muslim university professors donning the hijab to protest against it. It interviewed Nora Jaffary of Concordia University and McGill University’s Catherine Lu. Both women chose to wear the hijab to protest the Charter changes. Nora Jaffary stated that for many Muslim women that reside in Quebec, the hijab and veiling in general, is not  something that is forced upon them by parents or husbands and continued by stating that the proposed ban on the hijab would target groups of minorities in the Canadian province of Quebec (cbc). Specifically she believed it would target and single out Muslim women (cbc). The article continued by stating that if more people joined the protest alongside Jaffary and Lu, there could be a major impact on the pr oposed legislation. Overall, CBC News showed its’ stance on the proposed secular Charter changes in Quebec. The media outlet continuously spoke against the Charter changes and advocated the fundamental freedoms of Muslim women and all other minorities that would be stripped of their right to practice religion as inhabitants within Canada. News coverage by a different Canadian media outlet showed similar results. Specifically, when analyzing Global News media coverage of the Quebec Charter changes, it was evident that Global News also looked to eliminate discrimination and as a result, Islamophobia. For example, a post doctoral individual from Concordia University, Emmanuelle Richez, commented on this Charter change with negativity as he stated, â€Å" So they’re not saying it, but it’s going to be more constraining for people that are not part of the religious majority†. Overall, the Parti Quebecois stated that it was attempting to move towards religious equality, however, it was attempting to ban fundamental freedoms of the Canadian people of religious freedom and forcing assimilation.

Chem Lab – Heat of Combustion of Magnesium

Heat of Combustion of Magnesium Background: The students were given full instructions on how to experimentally determine the enthalpy of reaction (? Hrxn) for the combustion of magnesium ribbon, using Hess’s Law. Data Collection: |Reaction 1 |Reaction 2 | | |(MgO) |(Mg) | | |Trial 1 |Trial 2 |Trial 1 |Trial 2 | |Volume of 1. 00 M HCl |50. 0 mL  ± 0. 5 mL |50. 0 mL  ± 0. 5 mL |50. mL  ± 0. 5 mL |50. 0 mL  ± 0. 5 mL | |Final temperature, t2 |28. 9(C  ± 0. 1(C |28. 8(C  ± 0. 1(C |44. 8(C  ± 0. 1(C |44. 4( C  ± 0. 1(C | |Initial temperature, t1 |22. 5(C  ± 0. 1(C |22. 3( C  ± 0. 1(C |21. 9(C  ± 0. 1(C |21. 8( C  ± 0. 1(C | |Mass of solid |0. 50 g  ± 0. 01g |0. 50 g  ± 0. 01g |0. 25 g  ± 0. 01g |0. 25 g  ± 0. 01g | Data Processing: |Reaction 1 | | |(MgO) | | |Trial 1 |Trial 2 | |Change in |final temperature – initial temperature |final temperature – initial temperature | |temperature, (t |28. (C – 22. 5(C = 6. 4(C |28. 8(C – 22. 3(C = 6. 3(C | | | | | | |Uncertainty of temperature: 0. 1(C + 0. 1(C = 0. 2(C |Uncertainty of temperature: 0. 1(C + 0. 1(C = 0. 2(C | | | | | | |Change in temperature = 6. (C  ± 0. 2(C |Change in temperature = 6. 3(C  ± 0. 2(C | |Heat of HCl |Mass of 1. 0 M HCl [pic] specific heat of HCl [pic] change in |Mass of 1. 0 M HCl [pic] specific heat of HCl [pic] change in | |solution, q |temperature |temperature | | | | | | |To find mass of 1. 0 M HCl : Density of 1. M HCl [pic] volume |To find mass of 1. 0 M HCl : Density of 1. 0M HCl [pic] volume | | |of 1. 0M HCl |of 1. 0M HCl | | |1. 005 [pic] [pic] 50. 0 mL = 50. 3 g |1. 005 [pic] [pic] 50. 0 mL = 50. 3 g | | | | | | |50. 3 g [pic] . 00418 [pic] [pic] 6. 4(C = 1. 3 kJ |50. g [pic] . 00418 [pic] [pic] 6. 3(C = 1. 3 kJ | | | | | | |% Uncertainty of Heat: [(0. 5mL ? 50 mL) + (0. 2(C ? 6. 4(C)] |% Uncertainty of Heat: [(0. 5mL ? 50 mL) + (0. 2(C ? 6. 3(C)] | | |[pic] 100% = 4% |[pic] 100% = 4% | | |Uncertainty of Heat: 4% of 1. 3 kJ = 0. 5 kJ |Uncertainty of Heat: 4% of 1. kJ = 0. 5 kJ | | | | | | |Heat of HCl = 1. 3 kJ  ± 0. 5 kJ |Heat of HCl = 1. 3 kJ  ± 0. 5 kJ | |Enthalpy change,|Enthalpy change of reaction = -heat of HCl solution |Enthalpy change of reaction = -heat of HCl solution | |(H | | | | |Enthalpy of MgO = -1. kJ  ± 0. 5 kJ |Enthalpy of MgO = -1. 3 kJ  ± 0. 5 kJ | |Moles of MgO |Mass of MgO ? molar mass of MgO |Mass of MgO ? molar mass of MgO | | | | | | |0. 50 g MgO ? 40. 30[pic] = 0. 0120 mol |0. 50 g MgO ? 40. 30[pic] = 0. 0120 mol | | |% Uncertainty of moles: (0. 01g ? 0. 0g) [pic] 100% = 2% |% Uncertainty of moles: (0. 01g ? 0. 50g) [pic] 100% = 2% | | |Uncertainty of moles: 2% of 0. 0120 mol = 0. 0002 mol |Uncertainty of moles: 2% of 0. 0120 mol = 0. 0002 mol | | | | | | |Moles of MgO = 0. 0120 mol  ± 0. 0002 mol |Moles of MgO = 0. 0120 mol  ± 0. 0002 mol | |Molar enthalpy |Enthalpy of MgO ? moles of MgO |Enthalpy of MgO ? oles of MgO | |change, (H/m ol | | | | |-1. 3 kJ ? 0. 0120 mol = -110 [pic] |-1. 3 kJ ? 0. 0120 mol = -110 [pic] | | | | | | |% Uncertainty: [(0. 5 kJ ? 1. 3 kJ) + (0. 0002 mol ? 0. 0120 mol)] |% Uncertainty: [(0. 5 kJ ? 1. 3 kJ) + (0. 0002 mol ? 0. 120 mol)] | | |[pic] 100% = 40% |[pic] 100% = 40% | | |Uncertainty: 40% of -110 [pic] = 40 [pic] |Uncertainty: 40% of -110 [pic] = 40 [pic] | | | | | | |Molar enthalpy change = -110 [pic]  ± 40 [pic] |Molar enthalpy change = -110 [pic]  ± 40 [pic] | |Average molar |(molar enthalpy change of Trial 1 + molar enthalpy change of Trial 2) ? | |enthalpy change |( -110 [pic] + -110 [pic] ) ? 2 = -110 [pic] | | | | | |Uncertainty: (40 [pic] + 40 [pic] ) ? 2 = 40 [pic] | | | | | |Average molar enthalpy change = -110 [pic]  ± 40 [pic] | |Reaction 2 | | |(Mg) | | |Trial 1 |Trial 2 | |Change in |final temperature – initial temperature |final temperature – initial temperature | |temperature, (t |44. 8(C – 21. 9(C = 22. 9(C |44. 4(C  œ 21. 8(C = 22. (C | | | | | | |Uncertainty of temperature: 0. 1(C + 0. 1(C = 0. 2(C |Uncertainty of temperature: 0. 1(C + 0. 1(C = 0. 2(C | | | | | | |Change in temperature = 22. 9(C  ± 0. 2(C |Change in temperature = 22. 6(C  ± 0. 2(C | |Heat of HCl |Mass of 1. M HCl [pic] specific heat of HCl [pic] change in |Mass of 1. 0 M HCl [pic] specific heat of HCl [pic] change in | |solution, q |temperature |temperature | | | | | | |To find mass of 1. 0 M HCl : Density of 1. 0M HCl [pic] volume |To find mass of 1. 0 M HCl : Density of 1. 0M HCl [pic] volume | | |of 1. 0M HCl |of 1. M HCl | | |1. 005 [pic] [pic] 50. 0 mL = 50. 3 g |1. 005 [pic] [pic] 50. 0 mL = 50. 3 g | | | | | | |50. 3 g [pic] . 00418 [pic] [pic] 22. 9(C = 4. 81 kJ |50. 3 g [pic] . 00418 [pic] [pic] 22. 6(C = 4. 75 kJ | | | | | | |% Uncertainty of Heat: [(0. 5mL ? 0 mL) + (0. 2(C ? 22. 9(C)] |% Uncertainty of Heat: [(0. 5mL ? 50 mL) + (0. 2(C ? 22. 6(C)] | | |[pic] 100% = 1. 9% |[pic] 100% = 1. 9% | | |Unc ertainty of Heat: 1. 9% of 4. 81 kJ = 0. 09 kJ |Uncertainty of Heat: 1. 9% of 4. 75 kJ = 0. 09 kJ | | | | | | |Heat of HCl = 4. 81 kJ  ± 0. 09 kJ |Heat of HCl = 4. 75 kJ  ± 0. 9 kJ | |Enthalpy change,|Enthalpy change of reaction = -heat of HCl solution |Enthalpy change of reaction = -heat of HCl solution | |(H | | | | |Enthalpy of Mg = -4. 81 kJ  ± 0. 09 kJ |Enthalpy of Mg = -4. 75 kJ  ± 0. 09 kJ | |Moles of Mg |Mass of Mg ? molar mass of Mg |Mass of Mg ? molar mass of Mg | | | | | | |0. 25 g ? 24. 30[pic] = 0. 010 mol |0. 25 g ? 24. 30[pic] = 0. 10 mol | | |% Uncertainty of moles: (0. 01g ? 0. 25g) [pic] 100% = 4% |% Uncertainty of moles: (0. 01g ? 0. 25g) [pic] 100% = 4% | | |Uncertainty of moles: 4% of 0. 0100 mol = 0. 0004 mol |Uncertainty of moles: 4% of 0. 0100 mol = 0. 0004 mol | | | | | | |Moles of Mg = 0. 0100  ± 0. 0004 mol |Moles of Mg = 0. 0100  ± 0. 0004 mol | |Molar enthalpy |Enthalpy of Mg ? oles of Mg |Enthalpy of Mg ? moles of Mg | |change, (H/mo l | | | | |-4. 81kJ ? 0. 0100 mol = -481 [pic] |-4. 75 kJ ? 0. 0100 mol = – 475[pic] | | | | | | |% Uncertainty: [(0. 09 kJ ? 4. 81 kJ) + (0. 0004 mol ? 0. 0100 |% Uncertainty: [(0. 09 kJ ? 4. 75 kJ) + (0. 0004 mol ? 0. 100 | | |mol)] [pic] 100% = 6% |mol)] [pic] 100% = 6% | | |Uncertainty: 6% of -481 [pic] = 29 [pic] |Uncertainty: 6% of -475 [pic] = 29 [pic] | | | | | | |Molar enthalpy change = -481 [pic]  ± 29 [pic] |Molar enthalpy change = -475 [pic]  ± 29 [pic] | |Average molar |(molar enthalpy change of Trial 1 + molar enthalpy change of Trial 2) ? | |enthalpy change |(-481 [pic] + -475 [pic] ) ? 2 = -478 [pic] | | | | | |Uncertainty: (29 [pic] + 29 [pic] ) ? 2 = 29 [pic] | | | | | |Average molar enthalpy change = -478 [pic]  ± 29 [pic] |